Business Strategy Of Wal Mart In Japan

Business dodging Of Wal Mart In japanGlobalisation is described as a process of world wide integration of culture, technology, loving, political and economic factors. It is all(prenominal) about the creation of a world unified food tradeplace and this set up be observed with the growing levels of global backing (Luthans and Doh, 2009). Globalisation is b atomic number 18 in the shift of Multi interior(a) companies (MNCs) and economies from a world of isolation as a result of trade barriers to a world of push downd trade barriers and more than inter related businesses and economies (Hill, 2009). MNCs now, expand from both buzz offed countries, develop countries and emerging countries and vice-versa. There is thereof increasing competition among nations (The Economist, 2008). The global expanding upon of businesses over the years into different inter fieldistic commercialises have attend toed these businesses to increase their sales, competitiveness, reduce their emb ody of production and expand out of their saturated home merchandises (Root, 1994 Hill, 2009 Daniels et al., 2009). Retailers ar non exceptions to this global elaboration.This article will evaluate the inter fieldisation scheme of Wal-mart in japan. Wal-Marts internalisation outline in Japan is of compositionicular disport because it recently pulled out of two of its international markets Germany and South Korea. Its mastery in Japan is unflurried questionable especially as Japan has be to be a difficult market for many foreign retailers. foreign companies such as Carrefour, Boots have pulled out from the Japanese market by and by facing business challenges (Luthans and Doh, 2006). The literature review will analyse the Integration- reactivity I-R frame prevail as considerably as culture. These frameworks will be utilise for the evaluation of Wal-martsinternationalisation outline into the Japanese market in semblance with its international competitor Tesco Plc. T he use of these two frameworks is to show the extent to which Wal-marts musical arrangement resolves towards Japanese topical anaesthetic anaesthetic anaesthetic anesthetic anaesthetic tastes and privilegeences in achieving a flourishing internationalisation. Conclusions and recommendations will be drawn from this analysis.BACKGROUND OF WAL-MARTWal-mart was founded in 1962 by Sam Walton and opened its source discount store in Rogers Ark, USA. In 1969, the company incorporated to choke Wal-Mart Stores, Inc. Wal-mart stores feature general merchandise such as electronics, clothe, and home appliances. It likewise has complete groceries units. The company employs more than 2.1 zillion associates, serving more than 176 million customers a year. In 2009, it ranked first among retailers in Fortune Magazines about Admired Companies survey and is withal the largest retailer in the world (Wal-mart, 2009).As a result of the saturation of the Ameri fuel retail market, Wal-mart started its international expansion into foreign markets in the 1990s first into Mexico and subsequently expanded into long dozen other countries including Japan China, Canada and Great Britain (Wal-Mart, 2009 Hill, 2009). Today it has about 8,424 stores and club locations. The companys near successful foreign venture is in its Mexican market (Hill, 2009). This is as a result of the fact that they adjusted their international outline to equalize local demands. Their everyday imprint wrong strategy was to a fault successful in Mexico which is a developing inelegant. However, these strategies are not always welcomed by consumers as revealed in their German and Korean market expansions where they failed and had to pull out. Wal-Mart is still struggling to succeed in the Japanese market where it has already invested $1 billion (USD) (BBC, 2007).Nevertheless, Wal-marts international expansions of Wal-Mart has al haplessed it to develop economies of scale, increase Its customer b ase and develop more ideas such as their new shop layout (Hill, 2009 Wal-mart, 2009).LITERATURE go overINTEGRATION-RESPONSIVENESS(I-R) FRAMEWORK gibe to Prahalad and Doz (1987, p.18) the Integration-Responsiveness (I-R) framework is a way of capturing the blackmails on a given business . This framework is based on the pressures for global integration and local responsiveness on a business as sensed by the managers of the company (Rugman, 2002). Pressures for global integration are industry forces which drives companies into the standardisation of their products, policies and procedures in pronounce to reduce their cost of operations across national boundaries while pressures for local responsiveness are forces which drive businesses into existence locally sensitive to differences in culture, preferences, tastes, and general behaviour of each international market in their internationalisation strategies (Rugman, 2002 Daniel et al., 2009 Luthans and Doh, 2009).According to Luth ans and Doh (2009), the understanding of culture and its mixture is important to an international companys successful internationalisation in any country. This is because it usurpations upon work force attitudes, managerial ideology, technological transfers, business customs and practices as salutary as consumer behaviours.The I-R framework was positive by Prahalad and Doz in 1987. They categorize international strategies into Global strategy (global integrated, centralised management and run away for cost reduction), Multi-focal strategy (an integration of global coordination and local responsiveness) and locally responsive strategy (customised and localized product and services). The adoption of any of these strategies is dependent on the dominant pressure on an MNC as well as its main focus which could be cost reduction or customer satisfaction.Bartlett and Ghoshal (1989) hike developed this framework and classified MNC strategies into four categories which can be compar ed with that of Prahalad and Doz. Their four strategical classifications are Global strategy, International strategy, Transnational and Multi domestic strategy. Companies with global strategy (high Integration- paltry Responsiveness) focus on standardization and cost reduction with preposterous global harbor, those with International strategy ( junior-grade Integration-Low Responsiveness) usually introduce their existing competence and expertise into the new market while Transnational companies ( risque Integration and game Responsiveness) are flexible and integrate equal levels of global integration and local responsiveness into their business. The multi-domestic companies on the other hand ( utter Integration and blue Responsiveness) respond more towards product customisation (Daniel et al 2009). It is however worthy to note that the adoption of unmatched strategy may lead to the neglecting another. Figure 1, shows the diagrammatic pattern of the strategic classification s by both authors.CULTUREThe understanding of culture and its impact on international market expansion is imperative to the success an MNCs strategy in a foreign country (Luthans and Doh, 2009). The degree of pressure for local responsiveness is reflective of the degree of influence of culture upon consumers. Differences in cultural match between companies and employees or consumers can a lot result to contend for success in an international market (Holstein, 2007). Hofstede (1980, p.21), defined culture as the collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the members of one human group from another. however as personality defines the identity of an individual, culture defines the identity of a group. According to Luthans and Doh 2009 p.96, culture is the acquired knowledge that bulk use to interpret, experience and go social behaviour. This acquired knowledge often manifest into peoples attitude, values, behaviours and general ways of life. many a(prenominal) resea rchers have argued that culture can be learned, shared, symbolised, patterned, adapted and transgenerationalised.Hill (2009) get along argues that values and norms form the basis of a culture. These values could be attributed to collective responsibility, social obligations, loyalty and so on and are often measure emotionally important to the group. Norms on the other hand are social codes of conducts which dictate peoples behaviour towards each other. The Japanese for instance, can be seen as a group of people with similar values and norms and related culture. several(prenominal) researchers have studied cultural differences and its impact on different national behaviours.Hall (1973, 7976) cited in Paliwoda and Ryans (2008), categorised culture into High and Low context. High context cultures like Japanese and Arabic, prefer implicit or voiceless messages and slow business discussions with emphasis on personal relationship and bank while Low context cultures like North America, United Kingdom, Germany prefer explicit, written or spoken messages with more emphasis on expertise, public presentation and efficiency.Hofstede (1980) undertook a study of the impact of culture on values in a workplace. He categorised culture into four main dimensions cause distance, uncertainty vacateance, individualism -collectivism and masculinity-feminity. A fifth one confucian dynaminism also referred to as long term or short term predilection was later developed. Power distance shows the extent to which people perceive ine tint. High power distance nations (cultures) emphasise on the ine timber of power, its workforce fall out their superiors orders while low power nations or cultures derogate this inequality to stripped-down thus the work force follow superiors orders as a adjective requirement. Uncertainty avoidance on the other hand is the extent to which cultures avoid uncertainty. High uncertainty avoidance cultures shy away from risks, while low uncertainty avoid ance cultures see risk as a part of life. Individualism versus collectivism is the degree to which people look after themselves as individuals or work in groups. Masculinity is often compared with feminity. Cultures with emphasis on success, money were referred as more masculine by Hosftede while a culture with emphasis on quality of life and caring for people are seen as feminist ( Hill,2009 Luthans and Doh,2009). The table downstairs shows the Work-related values for 5 countries adapted from Hofstedes study.In as much as Hofstedes work is well accepted and has provided the basic characterisation of different cultural or national groups, these are not definite because culture cannot be easily classified and also culture is bit by bit changing with the increase in globalisation and integration of the world at large (Luthans and Doh, 2009).WAL-MARTS EXPANSION INTO JAPAN.Wal-Mart initially make a failed entry into Japan in the mid 1990s when it entered the market through selling it s products in local supermarkets, however sales were frustrate (Yoffie and Wang, 2002). The initial failure could be associated to slow market drive by the local super markets as Wal-mart had little or no control over them. This can be seen as a major single out of indirect exporting (Root 1994). However, in 2002 Wal-mart made a second examine into Japan (BBC, 2006). Japan is one of the wealthiest and developed economies in the world. It has the second largest consumer market (Haddock-Fraser et al., 2009). Wal-marts entry into Japan was through partnership with Seiyu Ltd which is Japans fifth largest hypermarket and was in fiscal distress at that condemnation (Yoffie and Wang, 2002). It was a deal which was done in phases as agreed by both parties. Wal-mart was to initially acquire 6.1% of Seiyu shares and gradually increase its bet on by acquiring up to 67% of Seiyu in 2007 (Yoffie and Wang, 2002). Sumitomo Corp a leading trading company in Japan also had a 15.6% stake of Seiy u (Luthans and Doh, 2009). In 2005, Wal-mart increased its acquisition stake making Seiyu a Wal-mart subsidiary and increasing Wal-marts control over Seiyu. In 2007, Wal-marts stake was again increased to 95.1% (Wal-mart, 2009). This partnership deal was meant to help Wal-mart minimise its risk of internationalising in Japan where there is strong domestic competition, impairment wars and strong suppliers and also help its entry and expansion in the market (Yoffie and Wang, 2002 Luthans and Doh, 2009).ANALYSIS OF WAL-MARTS STRATEGY IN JAPAN.Companies like Wal-mart, adopt international strategy for global expansion as suggested by Bartlett and Goshal because they have burden competences which they can capitalise upon especially if its difficult for their rivals to match them. Companies with International strategy have important part of their value chain such as decision making, expertise, new products and international operations being controlled or clear-cut from their headquarter s. However such centralised decision making can often impede upon the abilities of the subsidiaries to respond to local demands (Hill, 2006 Daniel et al., 2009).Wal-mart has a cost efficient operational system with an expense structure that is among the lowest in the industry (Shah et al, 2005). Its price of food was estimated to be 20% lower than its competitors in the United States (Yoffie and Wang, 2002). Wal-mart is therefore trying to replicate this successful American strategy and core competence of Everyday Low Price (EDLP) in the Japanese international market. though this strategy has been success in some of its international markets such as Mexico and China, the results in Germany and Korea were so poor that Wal-mart withdrew from those countries in 2006. Once again the success of this strategy is still questionable in Japan. Japanese consumers associate low price with low quality as they are willing to reconcile high price for high quality products (Holstein, 2007 strat egical Direction, 2008 Boyle, 2009).The perception of customers towards low price signifying low quality is particularly high in its clothing segment (Brunn, 2006). This low price strategy was adopted by Wal-Mart in its entry into Japan in 2002, especially because it was at a time when the country was just emerging from a prolonged recession and consumer income was low (Luthans and Doh, 2009). In order to erase this image of Low Price signifying Low Quality from the minds of their customers, Wal-Mart has introduced, more expensive products for the customer segment that prefers high cost while still maintaining some low cost variants. For example, it has jeans for $10 and $ 35 option as well (Business Week, 2005) this however may further jumble its customers who may not understand the basis for such price disparity.Japan is a country with a high context society and state-controlled way of life (Paliwoda and Ryans, 2008). They have strong ties to families and groups and great emphas is for quality and prestige (Hofstede, 1980). As a result of these strong social ties, Wal-Marts passing of 25% of Seiyus work force including 1500 managers and employees in 2004, was wrongly perceived by the Japanese people. Wal-mart opens its stores for 24 hours a day, this is seen as stressful by the employees and primarily seen as an infiltration of the American culture into Japan. Its introduction of American, Canadian and British managers who act on headquarters decisions rather than employing Japanese managers who understand the market better further portrayed them in a negative fallible to both the employees and the general public. This consequently led to the loss of some of its customers (Holstein, 2007 Strategic Direction, 2008).Another core competence which Wal-mart introduced into Japan is its technology-focused inventory replenishment system which is linked to their suppliers. It helps them monitor and manage their inventories. However, because the Japanese people p refer personal interaction when doing business (Hofstede,1980), the implementation of this Information technology strategy has not been easy, especially as Japan has several layers of distribution network which are closely networked and difficult to penetrate. It thus makes high volume discounting difficult and merchandise more expensive (Brunn, 2006 Holstein, 2007). Wal-Mart is however trying to eliminate the middle-man in order to successfully implement its low price strategy (Luthan and Doh, 2009).Wal-marts retort to local tastes, preferences and general way of life is perceived as low in its international strategy as It tends to implement its competences into international markets with little considerations to what the local demands, preferences, expectations are and this has led to its struggle to survive in Japan (Brunn, 2006). compare Wal-mart with Tesco Plc in Japan, the following differences can be drawn from their strategy. Tesco Plc which is the biggest retailer in the United Kingdom entered Japan in 2003 through the acquisition of a domestic retailer just as Wal-Mart did. While Wal-mart acquired Seiyu which is a hypermarket, Tesco Plc acquired C Two-Network stores which has humiliated discount supermarket stores (Tesco, 2009). Haddock-Fraser et al., (2009) have argued that large supermarket (hypermarkets) of the western cultures are not operable in Japan, rather small supermarkets, thingumabob stores with immaterial and quality products are preferred by the Japanese consumers. Thus the strategic move of acquiring a discount supermarket chain by Tesco was aimed at concourse the local demand of the Japanese consumers who prefer to shop daily for fresh food in small quantities with convenience. This shopping behaviour makes them to patronise convenience stores and discount supermarkets which are more accessible than out of town hypermarkets. Tesco, with its small store format, experienced overall sales growth in 2006 contrary Wal-mart which ha s been making loss for four years (Haddock-Fraser et al., 2009).Upon acquiring C Two-Network, Tesco carry the management team of the company to oversee its operations in Japan, because Tesco pull in that these managers have better understanding of the Japanese employees, consumers and suppliers (Food and Drink, 2003). Japan, being a country with high collective behaviours, (Holfstede, 1980) perceived this as a good move. Tesco Plc tries to coiffe its products and services in each of their international markets, recognising that each market has funny preferences. This higher degree of local responsiveness in their international markets emphasises the designer why Tesco retains its foreign managers and limits its control from headquarters (Tesco, 2009).Figures 3 and 4 below further shows the differences in the sales contribution of the international markets to the total tax of both companies. Wal-Marts international markets contributed 24.6% of the companys 2009 financial incom e while Tesco Plc has 53% of its 2009 financial income being generated by its foreign markets with Asia alone generating 30% of this value. It can, therefore, be concluded that Tescos response to local responsiveness has a positive impact on their financial performance internationally.CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONSWal-Mart is very successful in its domestic market and also some foreign markets such as China and Mexico where it had to adjust its strategy in order to respond better to local pressures. It is therefore recommended that Wal-mart should further develop its strategy in Japan and respond better to the countrys local demands and preferences through the opening of convenience stores in order to capture that market segment and offering more fresh local products to meet the local demand. Wal-mart should also employ Japanese managers who understand the market better. These measures will help Wal-mart to succeed better in Japan where the pressure for low price by customers is no t emphasised rather high quality is preferred. Wal-mart can still maintain its international strategy with a little more responsiveness to local demand as there is no one best strategy to adopt. This move will save Wal-mart from withdrawing from the market where it has already invested $1 billion USD. Wal-marts low sales value from international operations in comparison with Tesco reveals that the retail market is still a viable industry for Wal-mart to exploit.

The Apache And Christian Creation Stories Are Unique Religion Essay

The Apache And Christian invention Stories Are Unique Religion EssayThe Apache and Christian excogitation stories argon unique and interesting in their own ways. Long ago, in that location were plurality in the United States before the European settlers. They were Native Americans, people whose paddy wagon and souls were one with the grease and surrounding nature, the Apache. The Apache people had a unique and advantageously developed society which included e really aspect of life. One of the roughly interesting aspects of the Apache is their construct stratum. In the Apache creation story, nothing existed at the initiation in that respect was no earth or anything for that matter, only duskiness shrouded everywhere. From the darkness appeared a thin disc, one incline yellow and the other(a) side white, susp destructioned in midair. Inside the disc sat a broken bearded man, who was c in alled spring. In Apache religion there is one main condition, Ussen, and then(pre nominal) lesser gods, making them have a total of four matinee idols frankincense making the Apache people polytheistic. The reason found a missy without Parents session on a cloud asking about the Earth. at that place were as well as four dedicated colors, black, blue, yellow, and white which have guided the Apachs in their entreaty to the Creator. The four colors symbolize the colors of the threads Tarantula utilise to pull and stretch the earth. During creation, the Creator do the gods, heavens, earth, plants, and animals all from his sweat. The creator send a lesser matinee idol named Lightning-Maker to encircle the world, and he returned with three feral creatures, two girls and a boy. These creatures had no eyes, ears, hair, mouths, noses, or teeth. They had arms and legs, but no fingers or toes. The three creatures were placed inside a sweathouse bring outd by Girl without Parents. They came out of the sweathouse and the Creator then gave each of them fingers, toe s, mouths, eyes, ears, noses and hair. Creator named the boy, Sky-Boy, to be headland of the Sky-People. One girl he named Earth-Daughter, to take charge of the earth and its crops. The other girl he named Pollen-Girl, and gave her charge of health veneration for all Earth-People. The Creator thought that it would be a fun idea to create animals, birds, trees, and hills to subvent the earth. Like many other religions, the Apache religion has a creation story that includes a flood. After the flood was over, the Creator left and put Lightning-Rumbler, in charge of clouds and wet. The Creator left Sky-Boy in charge of the Sky-People. The Earth-Daughter was left in charge of all crops and Earth-People. Pollen-Girl was in charge of the health and guidance of everyone. The Christian theory of creation is unique in its own way as well. The Christian theory states that in the beginning immortal created the heavens and the earth. When God created Light, he saw that the trip out was goo d so he unconnected the light from the darkness. The light was called Day, and the darkness was called Night. This was the first day of creation. The firmament that God created from water was called Heaven. Then evening and morning were created, this was the second day of creation. The water was gathered in one place so that dry land appeared, the dry land was called Earth, and the gathered water was called Seas. God then made the vegetation, plants yielding seed, and fruit trees bearing fruit, this was the end of the third day. On the fourth day, God made two great lights, a greater light to rule the day, and a lesser light to rule the night he also made the stars. On the fifth and six-spotth days, God created the creatures of the Earth, sea, and lurch and told them to multiply. God created man in his own image, in the image, he created priapic and female. God blessed them, and told them to be fruitful and multiply. He also told them to command all of the earth and he gave th em green plants for food. God blessed them and that was the end of the sixth day. God blessed the seventh day and rested from all his work. These creation stories are the backbone of each of the Christian and Apache belief systems.The Apache and Christian belief systems include a variety of characters, which are present in the creation stories. There is but only one God touch in the Christian creation story therefore making Christianity a monotheistic religion. The Apache creation story involves multiple figures the Creator and the lesser Gods making this a polytheistic faith. These characters have either helped the divine world create the universe or they were created by the divine being to take care of the Earth. The Creator in the Apache myth is depicted as a scummy man with a beard. This can be compared to God in the Christian creation theory. Both are depicted as old males. These ripened male figures may represent wisdom and knowledge. In the Apache story, the Creator was the supreme Being that is in charge of everything. There were also lesser Gods that helped the Creator create the Earth, while in the Christian theory, God created everything by himself. Although the God in the Christian creation story does get tried on the seventh day of creation and needs rest, he is not anthropomorphic. The Creator in the Apache story is considered to be anthropomorphic. The Creator displays humanlike characteristics, for instance, he was sudation throughout the whole creation time period.In the Apache creation story, there were many figures twisting in the creation of the universe, while in Christianity there was only one God that created the universe. A very prominent excogitation that stood out in the Apache creation myth is the fact that there were animals involved in the creation of the universe. Animals like hummingbirds and tarantulas played a vital region in the creation of the universe. The fact that animals aided in the creation of the universe, is reflected in the actual beliefs of the Apache people. The Apache conceive in nagualism and animism. They believe that a human being has the power to magically turn him or herself into an animal form. They also believe that that souls or spirits exist not only in macrocosm but also in animals, plants, and other parts of the natural environment. pursuit of the Christian faith do not believe in nagualism as this belief is thought to be a primitive practice. Animals are considered sacred to the Apache, so there sacredness may be because of the roles the animals played in the creation of the universe. Animals do not seem as crucial in the Christian faith, maybe this because animals were actually created by God and did not assist in the creation of the universe.The use of numbers in the Apache and the Christian creation stories is very prominent. The number four is considered to be sacred to the Apache. During the creation of the universe, the Apache Creator eer said things four tim es, and he clapped and rubbed his hands together four times. There were also a total of four Gods that mixed their sweat together to create a bean which eventually became the earth. The tarantula spun black, blue, yellow, and white stack and pulled them in four direction east, south, west, and north. The number four was a significant part of the Apache creation story. The number four is still considered sacred to the Apache. During rituals and dances, they carol all their songs and prayers in sets of four all rites last four nights. In the Christian belief, it took seven days to create the universe. This can be tie in to the amount of days we have in a week. In the creation myth, God hallowed on the seventh day and worked the other six days. In our modern world, Sunday -the seventh day of the week- is supposed to be for rest, just like in the Christian creation myth. The number seven is also important in both the Old Testament and the late Testament. It seems that numerology wa s so important that representing an event or series of events with the number 7 helped prove that the story was true. The number seven also means control. The numerology that appeared in the creation stories reflects belief of the respective creed.

The Rise And Challenge Of Neoliberalism To Neorealism Politics Essay

The Rise And Challenge Of Neoliberalism To Neo world Politics EssayThe modern or the new kind of liberalism and realism was developed in the seventies as a signifi give nonicet change in theories of transnational Relations. The neoliberalism is an attainment of liberalism thinking, as it contestations to a cooperation and inter dependency amongst enounces and non- responsibility make upors, while the neorealisms theory is centre on the idea of conflict. For the liberals or neoliberals, they have a more(prenominal) pollyannaish view of cool relations, but comp atomic number 18d to liberals the neoliberals ar highly tensi unitaryd on creating institutions to manage the external system.The neorealists comp atomic number 18d to realists consider that the ca intents of conflict are different. While realists believe that the opportunism of soils create conflict, the neorealists explain that the conflict comes from the anarchy, as the lack of ascendancy involves shows t o seek tycoon and develop a system of self-help.The cultivation of neoliberal theory was formulated by Robert O. Keohane and Joseph S. Nye (1977) base on interdependence model.The break down of neorealism school is Kenneth Waltz (1979), he base of operationss out from realists about the question of the sense of balance of ability. For realists the equilibrium results from the impulsiveness of politicians, but Waltz believes that the balance of power is an attribute to the planetary system which is composed of selfish units, regulate themselves. thence for him, the less study powers there are, the more stable the multinational system is. Therefore the depend of poles is reduced to increase system rigidity and more people take carefully.Having in mind this above statement, the main purpose of this essay is to insure in some detail how neoliberalism is a solution to neorealism and how it can altercate the realisms simplistic approach and neorealist theory of the world (prenominal) system.To begin with an analysis of the cash advance of neoliberalism, it is important to explain the main concept of this theory as this is to a fault the rise of institutions, of pluralism, of rationality. Then, by different ideas from authors the discussion and controversy on the debate will be analysed in order to identify the key points of neoliberalism to reverberation neorealism.The renewal of liberalism occurred after World War II to regulate outside(a) system for a peaceful world order. The ideas of neoliberalism are ground on cooperation through and through international institutions and international organizations, which play an important role in the international distribution of wealth and power to maintain stability. Indeed, the major authors corresponding Stephen Krasner (1982) and the founder of neoliberal thought, Robert O. Keohane (1984) has published a book After hegemony and both(prenominal) develop an hegemonic stability theory, they argue tha t the hegemon provides equalence goods through institutions (e.g. International fiscal Fund, World Trade arrangement), determine the content of rules and procedures of cooperation in order to act in the amuse of all. and then the hegemon provides a necessary and sufficient percentage for the creation and maintenance of international regimes. The neoliberals saw institutions concentrated on international regimes defined by Krasner (1983) as institutions possessing norms, decision rules, and procedures which accelerate a convergency of expectations.Neoliberalism as well as associates to a rise of pluralism, which is viewed as the source of liberal plea (Robert B. Talisse, 2005, pp. 60) that relies on the assumption of rationality. This leads to an interaction between states, as the rationality involves them to focus on strategy in which actions will lead to reactions by early(a)s, because the result will depend on the interaction of other state strategies (Tim Dunne, et al., 2007). Thus the pluralism involves doubled forces in the international system. As David Armstrong, et al., (2007, pp. 85) state neoliberals no unyieldinger looked inside states, at how they are politically organized, but kinda followed neorealists in treating states as rational actors.The rise of neoliberalism leads to an emergence of international institutions, oftentimes called neoliberal institutionalism is foc employ on collective actors, as they provide rules and norms that persist the interaction of states that will work all together. Neoliberals are much more pragmatic than liberals. The notion of international institutions (e.g. International M unitarytary Fund, World Bank) differs from liberals, peculiarly after the publication of Robert O. Keohanes book After Hegemony (1984). The institutions have a spacious influence on states and have provided a way to altercate neorealism. International institutionalism can explain non-security policy areas, the focus goes beyond trade and development issues, like cooperation in trade, monetary policy or environmental protection (David Armstrong, et al., 2007).Thus, institutions, by pushing states to work together, facilitate international cooperation in cut back inherent uncertainties in anarchy. Also one of the major difference with realism is how they see the concept of anarchy (Grieco 1988).Both theories agree on state action and anarchy in world politics. Even if neoliberals recognise their proximity to neorealists, how they manage their similarities is different. Like neorealists, states are important but run with other entities (institutions, organizations).The anarchy, for neorealists, is the absence of authority above states, leading to conflicts on international system. This similarly means that a state is the guardian of its own security and independence (Spanier, 1978 pp. 11), thus the guarantee of security and safety for states does not exist. The self-interest for neorealists is bas ed on the measurement of gains and have preference on relative gains where states refer to power balances (Grieco, 1988). They believe in hegemonic cooperation, where the hegemonic state holds the position of power to negociate any coalition in international system with a prevalence of scotch and army power (Hobson, J. M.,2000, pp 39). For neorealists, cooperation can be utilise to ascertain some goals, but it is limited and risky as it introduces the possibility of endeavor from another state, even if the other state is an ally. According to Waltz for separately state the prior research of security is achieved by relying solely on itself.However would this lack of trust and cooperation to wards other states die hard to a dependence of the hegemonic state ?Neoliberals in response have demonstrated that anarchy cannot only deal with a constant threat of use of force by major powers. Miller, B. (1995, pp. 52) in his book called When Opponents Cooperation Great Power Conflict a nd collaboration in World Politics, has raised and grappled theoretical perspectives to advance plausible explanations. He stated that the small number of great powers and the use of force are insufficient factors to induce cooperation in conflict resolutions. The cooperation under anarchy (Oye, K. 1986) is possible. conflicting neorealists, they argue that the concept of self-help is not the most profitable for a state because of the risk of war. The cooperation may respond to the self-interest of a state. Neoliberals line of products is very the strongest one because they introduced idea of decomposable interdependence (Robert O. Keohane and J. Nye, 1977) to explain how multiple actors, agencies and forces can be managed in the world system. Keohane and Nye do successfully challenge structural realists as they provide a better understanding of changing security. They explain, for archetype, that in post Cold War era the security changed through multiple communications in mu ltipolar system. Moreover they argue that using force by military actions are costly and tend to negative effects on economic goals. This also leads to a risk of atomic rise. Therefore, complex interdependence assumed that the military power is not necessarily effective in economic and political interests of states.If issues occurred between great powers and smaller states, the great powers should dominate. However, the US experience in Vietnam (1961) shows the failure of neorealist theory on bipolar system.Keohane (1997, pp 187) has remarkably explained that Failure of great powers to control smaller ones could be explained on the dry land of independent evidence that in the relevant issue- areas, the states that are weaker on an general basis have more power resources than their stronger partners, and that the use of power derived from one area of activity to affect outcomes in other areas (through linkages) is difficult. Thus the complex interdependence has arguably challeng ed the neorealist theory in security concerns.The concept of Prisoners Dilemma, utilize by neorealists, is based on idea that they have a policy of self-help by default because they could not know the behaviour of other states. How to count on the behaviour of other states ? How to reduce the uncertainty in the situation of international anarchy ?The neoliberals responded by international institutions and international regimes creation. According to Keohane (1986) international regimes facilitate cooperation by reducing uncertainty. He argued that regimes were created to solve the Prisoners Dilemma concept where states care a super C interest in cooperation. The regimes are operated between self-interest states aware of all the put ons they can get from the coordination of their policies. In contrast to neorealists, they are concerned with absolute gains getting the surmount possible deal. Grieco stated that State seeks to maximize their individual absolute gains and are indif ferent to the gains achieved by others (Baldwin, 1993, pp 117).By using absolute gains neoliberals seek a long-term cooperation through institutions which are considered for neoliberal institutionalists as the mediator and the means to prevent to cheating in the world system (Baylis and Smith, 2001).Keohane and Nye (1977) have clearly defined the importance of institutions as powerful norms. Indeed, NGOs and ne cardinalrks are strongly effective in penetrating states and use domestic norms and rules to force political leaders to focus on world(prenominal) issues.The most significant argument is found in neoliberalism theory because international institutions encourage the opportunity of negotiations and focus on collaboration and distributional issues. Thus the collective aim is to achieve a positive outcome (Martin, Lisa L., and Beth A. Simmons, 1998). wiz of the relevant example to illustrate the importance of institutions is the World Trade Organization (the WTO agreement) crea ted in 1995, its goal is to provide free trade agreements and settle disputes between nations. If governments are confident to other ones they would not establish barriers to trade and would not try to do so. Thus they will be more willing to cooperate. The WTO system widely contributes to strengthen that trust and the negotiations lead to agreements by consensus. minor(ip) countries can benefit from greater bargaining power. It is important to remain that without a multilateral regime much(prenominal) as the WTO system, the more powerful countries could throw out unilaterally compel their force on their smaller trading partners. Thus smaller countries would have to deal individually with each of the major economic powers and would have more difficulties in resisting to pressures.But with the WTO system, smaller countries may be more effective if they have opportunities to create alliances and share their resources (e.g. Association of south-east Asian Nations, 1967). Besides, major economic countries will also find their interest as they can negotiate with almost all of their trading partners at a time.As straind earlier, neorealists greater focus on power and security as a core goal through military force and tangible assets, but for neoliberals the dominant goal is the welfare through institutions and organizations.Walts focus is based on anarchical structure of the international system, states compete each other in order to survive. Neorealists also share joint ideas as defensive realism because anarchy causes a security dilemma leading states to worry about one anothers future intentions. Thus leaders mistakenly believe in aggression to make their state secure. For example in the Cold War era, the Soviet Union with their nuclear weapons venture the safety of America. One of the other popular neorealists, John Mearsheimer (2003), leader in offensive realism, believes in status quo power and blamed security emulation between great powers.However t he neoliberals concept on international institutions is the best means to avoid conflicts and hostility as they have an independent causal impact because they oversee global tasks that states do not (T. Dunne, et al., 2009). As they match a third party or neutral parties they have a complete autonomy to deal with states and promote values and goals on a global scale.One of the dominant strand for liberalists and neoliberalists is the democratic peace theory, based on Kants notions of Perpetual Peace. While neorealists completely dismiss this idea of commonwealth where states have no conflict among each other, neoliberals use this peaceful argument to counter neorealists on their use of force. The democratic peace theory is the argument that democracies do not tend to, or rarely go to war with each other. People are directly affected by decisions of war, the public opinion is therefore important as it affects the political behaviour.Democratic norms emphasize on the importance of d ialogue and negotiation, the same for trade relations. Besides, the main reasons that democracies do not go to wars or militarized conflicts against each other are the fact that state leaders have cultural and institutional restrictions (Doyle, 1986). Neoliberals stand as a challenge to neorealists in providing argument for peaceful and conjunctive international relations through democratic peace.Michael Doyle (1983) finds three pillars based on first, peaceful conflict resolution between democratic states, trice the common values among democratic states and third economic cooperation among democracies (R. Jackson, G. Sorensen, 2007, pp. 44).It is argued that this theory is also used as a tool to create homogenous world and challenge states sovereignty in the era of globalisation. Whereas neorealists think that globalisation does not exist because states only have state-interests. For them the globalisation would be economically bad, with negative outcomes such as dangerous ineq uality, rebellion, conflicts.In response to this negative idea, neoliberals think that globalisation can lead to community of states and new interests.Moreover, the democratic peace theorys benefit is to identify and condemn countries for human rights violations. While neorealists dismiss cultural differences between states, neoliberals emphasize the importance of culture and morality.For both, democracy must be normalized import that they have normative quality in which how the world ought to be or the way the world should be ordered. Democracy remains a piteous target (M. Brown, et al., 1996, pp. 268) and is used by neoliberals to challenge neorealists as a response to war and a collective solution for peace.The American hegemony is also a debate between neoliberals and neorealists. This is, on the one hand, viewed as a knockout power by neorealists as the USA have ability to impose their will on other political states in terms of military force, technological growth, they hav e permanent seat in the UN Security Council, nuclear weapon power and economic power.On the other hand, the concept of kooky power (Nye, J.) has a different view of hegemony, as emphasized earlier, it used other means, like culture, ideology, institutions.If the power of the US, analyzed in terms of resources and influences, is manifestly not what it was in the 1950s, but this decline should not be exaggerated. The kiss of peace Americana is more a myth than a reality, the US has never enjoyed a complete hegemony. Nye believes that they should consider sharing their leadership to face the transnational interdependence.Robert follow (Canadian neoliberal) thinks that hegemony and leadership terms are confused to describe the domination of one power in the international system. He stated that hegemony is a leadership by consent and is not a power struggle, but kind of functions in a subtle way, by a kind of planetary consent.Nye finds that the power definition has a lack of unifo rmity. That is why he undertook two approaches of the power definition The first one, is to identify the factors of power they can be measured from natural resources, territory, population or as political factors from institutions, organisations. A clear understanding of the factors are important to then define the power.The second approach is the goals of the power. For neorealists and realists the goals are the defense of national interests. However, Nye added that action fields of power are numerous and different.The challenge for the US is how to keep their hegemony as long as possible. In hard power the goal is to keep superiority, the US should more take active part in foreign conflicts (they tend to do since 9/11). As they cannot intervene everywhere (due to internal expenses) they must make a selection, necessarily based on national interests. In this instance their hegemony would appear as a strong supremacy. In easily power, the US must continue to promote exchanges and keep their advanced technology.As a response to neorealist theory, neoliberals argue that the use of force and a bilateral system are not effective. Arguments are based on peaceful world order by the creation of international institutions, organisations and regimes. Indeed, these ideas have successfully challenged neorealist thoughts, as organisations like the WTO allowed to reduce conflicts and settle disputes. They especially lead to concord members to cooperate through negotiations, the community of states is the main successful factor in order to avoid conflicts and wars.Finally, the notions of hegemony or power are used in both theories but have different meaning. Some similarities are also found in both, like universality, uniformity or anarchy and critics argue that instead of a debate this is more a neo-neo synthesis1.

How Reliable is Eyewitness Testimony?

How Reli adequate is Eye knowledge Testimony?This essays attempts to fall a conclusion regarding warmheartednesswitness testimonies and the ex got of its reliability. This was make by identifying factors in trio polar work outes sets. The attainment stage is the stage where the witness implements the fleck. The retention stage is the period amidst the meter the solvent ends and the time the witness argon asked for a evidence or passed ab let on the outlet. The recuperation stage is the period where the witness is providing training from their recall.During the acquisition stage, enquiry regarding exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the result (for example, time), violence of the even sot, weapon system contract and witness essay was analysed. During the retention stage, research regarding post-event instruction, introduction of conflicting education and introduction of misleading reading was analysed. During the convalescence stage, research regarding method of doubting, leading questions and a berth conduct of an material event was analysed.Experiments and reference studies regarding these factors were hence guessd to weigh the impact that it had on eyewitness good word. In conclusion, it was make that investigates regarding eyewitness affidavit hold little endorse to put forward its reliability but thither atomic number 18 likewise close to findings that dispute this. Thus, it was concluded that it is reliable barely to a small extent though it can be highschoolly accurate chthonian true conditions. Applications of this conclusion accommodates jurors being more aw atomic number 18 of the factors regarding eyewitness testimonial and taking into account when deciding on a verdict especially if the main(prenominal) evidence is based solely on eyewitness recounts.Word press 252 battle crysIntroductionEyewitness testimony is usually a communicative account commitn by an individual who has cap tured an event, typically of a crime. Eyewitness testimony relies heavily on the capability of the individuals to accurately recount the event. In a trial, the jury is most often persuaded due to the statement(s) of the witnesses. Also, in cases where little material evidence can be collected, eyewitnesses are the nidus for reaching a verdict. It has been argued that because testimonies are largely based on faint entrepot which can be settled by a variety of factors, it should non be depended upon. The contention of this essay is to identify and quantify the extent of true statement of this claim by identifying and evaluating factors that concern keeping and by re involveing essays and case studies to reach a conclusion on this matter. Memory and thus eye-witness reliability has acquire an issue of importance due to the high percentage of errors in identifying and prosecuting incriminate individuals. Thus, the reliability of eyewitness testimonies and impact on trials sh ould be reviewed.Memory is specify as a kind of repository in which facts ( tuition) whitethorn be retained over some period of time (Loftus, 1979). According to the Atkinson and Shiffrin determine of memory storage (1971), memory is made up of three antithetic pil low gear slips of information stores, each with different period, capacity and function. The initial is Sensory Memory. This suit of store lives for the spilt back up when individuals collect information from their sensory systems and preserves information in its original sensory form. The sense organs are circumscribed in their ability to store information about the world in an unprocessed way for more than a second. Thus, information is filtered through or selected by upkeep for further memory processing into the next sheath of memory store. This process of experiencing and filtering information is called acquisition. The next memory store is short-run memory allows individuals to retain information long enough to be apply and lasts approximately in the midst of 15 to 30 seconds. Miller (1956, cited in Weiten, 2005) proposed that short-term Memory had a capacity of about 7 chunks of information. If certain actions are railroad carried out, the information go forth be transferred to the last type of memory store, semipermanent Memory. Long-term Memory provides retention of information which can last between minutes to a lifetime and has a limitless capacity. The process of information deposited in the short-term and long-term memory store is called retention. Information is always being transferred between these stores. When witnesses are asked to give recount of what they witnessed, information is interpreted from the long-term memory store and this process is called retrieval.Events during these three processes whitethorn affect the quality of the eyewitness testimony. During the acquisition process information may non crap been perceived in the first place, information ma y be forgotten or interfered during the retention process or information may be inaccessible during questioning or during the retrieval process. abstract of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Acquisition ProcessDuring the acquisition process, on that point are a number of factors that can affect an eyewitness report of an event much(prenominal)(prenominal) as exposure time or stress. This can be divided into event factors and witness factors. This section of the essay impart evaluate the encumbrance of these factors on the reliability of eyewitness testimony.Exposure time to the event or object of focus is an event factor. Laughery et al (1971, cited in Loftus, 1979) tried subjects on their recall based on the exposure time to a picture, learned one at a time of different positions of a valet face. Two Caucasian male target faces were used, one with fair-colored hair and tinct with glasses and an separatewise with a darker-colored hair and complexion w ithout glasses. The self-governing changeable is the time the subjects viewed the pictures, which ranged from ten seconds to thirty- both seconds. The subjects were them asked, approximately eight minutes by and by exposure to identify the target within a series of one hundred fifty slides of human faces. The dependant changeable is the the true of the subjects recall. Fifty-eight percentof the subjects who viewed the pictures for thirty-two seconds skilly identified the target but moreover forty-seven percent of the subjects who viewed the pictures for ten seconds correctly identified the target. This suggests that the more time a witness has to view the target, the more accurate their recall will be. This research is authoritative as it is very scientific and precisely tested a peculiar(prenominal) variable that affects memory and recall. Although this is so, it was also conducted in an artificial milieu and thus, has low bionomical grimness. The research may also c ontain cultural and gender diverge as it besides tested for Caucasian males as the target. Thus, its application to targets of different cultures or gender is questionable.Estimating factors much(prenominal)(prenominal) as time, speed or keep is often asked of eyewitnesses. This involves perceiving the event and accurately inferring information from it. Marshalls (1966, cited in Loftus, 1979) sample tested subjects estimation of time. Four hundred and ninety-one subjects watched a forty-two second film and a week after they had precondition their written and verbal reports of the event, they were questioned as to the duration of the event. On add up, subjects gave an estimate of about ninety seconds. The results show that witnesses can inaccurately estimate certain factors of an event. Although the results are significant, the information was conducted in a controlled milieu which gives it little bionomical validity. To further assess the verity of this hit the books, a n additional study that can be considered is Buckhout et al. (1975, cited in Loftus, 1979)s study on the effects if eyewitness testimony in a real smear by staging an attack where a student attacked a prof in front of 141 witnesses. The attack lasted for thirty-four seconds but when interviewed later on, the average estimate of the duration of the event was eighty-one seconds, almost twice the true time. This study supports Marshalls study which shows that in that respect is a tendency for witnesses to overestimate the duration in an event. This is significant in most cases, especially for cases of self-defense where the time between the attack and the retaliation is very significant in the compartmentalization of the action.Another event factor is the violence of the event. A research done by Clifford and Scott (1978, cited in Loftus, 1979) investigated the ability of eyewitnesses to perceive crazy and non- convulsive events. Forty-eight subjects with equal number of men and w omen watched either one of two tapes. In the non-violent version, the characters were winding in a verbal exchange and weak restraining movements. In the violent version, one of the characters physically assaults another character. In an effort to be even, the circulateing and end of the tapes were manipulated to be identical. It was prime that regardless of gender, the aim of recall is significantly lower for those who viewed the more violent tape. It is inferred that this is due to the greater amount of stress that is produced in response to the violent event. This shows that eyewitness testimony of a violent event should be considered with the possibility of a high rate of in verity. though the results are significant due to the high reliability of the scientific method used, it also lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment where witnesses do not in reality experience the event.An event factor that is link to the witness factor, stress, is weapon focus. Easterbrook (1959) found that under high stress, individuals tend to focalise more on a few features of their environment and less attention to other features. Weapon focus is where a crime victim is face up with an assailant who is brandishing a weapon. This rises the stress take of the crime victim and thus, they will only concentrate on a few features, mainly the weapon and will welcome trouble recollecting other factors such as the assailants features. Loftus et al (1987) tested this with an experiment where thirty-six students were showed a series of slides which showed one of two scenarios at a profuse food restaurant. half(prenominal) the subjects saw a customer pointing a gun at the cashier maculation the other half, the control group saw a customer handing the cashier a check. A part of the experiment tested the memory of the students based on a series of seven questions on the customer. It was found that the take of true statement of the weapon g roup was fifty-six percent while the level of trueness for the control group was sixty-seven percent. As the results show that the accuracy level of the weapon group is lower than the control group, this is highly significant in showing that eye-witnesses acquisition process might be seriously hampered by the presence of a weapon. The results of the experiment are highly valid as it was conducted in a controlled environment which allowed a direct cause and effect outcome. While this is so, the participants did not experience the event and thus their response may be different to an literal witness which means that the experiment lacks ecological validity.During an event, stress is a witness factor that should be taken into account. This refers to the level of stress or fear that a witness experiences which may influence their perception during the acquisition process of the event. A simulated case study done by Berkun (1962, cited in Loftus, 1979) placed army recruits in a stressful situation. They were isolated with the exception of a telephone link. Then, they were told that they were in jeopardy to induce anxiety and were required to repair a broken communicate by following a series of complicated instructions. It was found that the high level of anxiety impaired performance of the subjects. As this case study was conducted during a period of different good standards than today, there are ethical implications to be considered. Nevertheless, the results of this case study significantly support the Yerkes-Dodson law (1908, cited in Green) which states that emotional arousal facilitates learning and performance up to a point after which there is a decrement. This can be applied to eyewitnesses who experience stress. Their senses may be stimulated but after a point, their acquisition process will be negatively affected. Although this is so, this case study has only looked at male soldiers, thus when applied to the public population, it lacks ecological vali dity.Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retention ProcessEye-witnesses are being tested on their retention of information from their Long-term Memory. Because retained information and thus, memory is being transferred between memory stores, it is possible that it can be influenced, enhanced or even distorted during or in between transfers. This section of the essay will focus on the numerous researches that have been carried out to investigate the accuracy of this or the extent of the influence that may occur. after(prenominal) an event occurs, sometimes witnesses discuss what they saw with each other and the information that is exchanged can result in an enhancement of memory in the form of modification or addition. An experiment was conducted by Loftus (1975) on one hundred and fifty participants. They were showed a film of a car crash where a car failed to part at a stop sign and turned right to enter traffic, causing a five-car collision. After the film which lasted for less than a minute, participants were asked a series of ten questions. Half of the participants were asked about the stop sign in the first question while the other half were asked about the right turn. both other questions were the same. The independent variable here is the first question and the dependant variable is the last question which asked participants if they remembered visiting a stop sign. Loftus found that there was a higher(prenominal) percentage of participants who recalled seeing a stop sign if the first question related to a stop sign than the control group, cardinal percent and thirty-five percent respectively. This shows that by mentioning an object, there is a higher chance of it being recalled. The results are highly significant as it was metric using precise results with a limited variable tested. It can be argued that the experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment but this allowed a spe cific variable to be tested which would have been impossible with a case study. As demonstrated by this experiment, eye-witnesses memory may be influenced by post-event information that they receive and thus, the more information that the witness is exposed to after the event, the higher the chance that their memory might be compromised.A modification to the previous variable is the question as to what happens when a witness learns new information which is different from what they experienced. Loftus (1975) conducted an experiment where forty participants were shown a three-minute video which involved a group of eight demonstrators noisily interrupting a lecture. The participants then had to answer a series of twenty questions. All the questions for the participants were identical except for one. Half of the participants were asked, Was the leader of the twelve demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? and the other half were asked, Was the leader of the four demonstrators who entered the classroom a male? All questions had to be answered with a yes or no. A week later, participants had to answer another set of questions. The critical question was How some demonstrators did you see enter the classroom? It was found that participants who previously answered the question with the word twelve account an average of 8.9 demonstrators while the other half reported an average of 6.4 demonstrators. It can be argued that this experiment lacks ecological validity as it was conducted in an artificial environment and that participants only viewed the event and did not actually witness it. The results may not be fully applicable to the general population. Although this is so, the controlled environment showed a direct cause and effect of a specific variable. The results of this experiment can be applied to eye-witness testimony where witnesses may be mislead in their testimony as their memory might be compromised by the introduction of conflicting information.Simil ar to the experiment above is an experiment conducted by Loftus and Zanni (1975, cited in Hill, 1998) which was a modification of the original Loftus and Palmer research. The aim of the experiment was to investigate the effect of adding post event information on memory. Participants were shown a film of a car accident after which they had to answer a series of questions. Half of the participants were required to answer, Did you see the broken headlight which implied that there was a broken headlight while the other half were asked, Did you see a broken headlight which only required participants to recall if it was there. It was found that half of the participants, who were asked using the word the, incorrectly reported seeing a broken headlight. As most of the other variables were controlled in the experiment, and only a specific variable was changed, the results signify that memory can be change by post event information. It can be argued that the participants did not experience t he incident and thus the experiment lacks ecological validity when applied to actual witnesses but as a specific variable was examined, it can be concluded that the cause and effect was to a large extent connected. This experiment shows that eyewitnesses may be influenced by post event information which may negatively affect their account.McCloskey and Zaragaza (1985) also conducted experiments concerning the effect of misleading post event information on participants. After watching a series of slides portraying an event, participants received a narrative of the event. Participants in the mislead condition will receive a narration with receive the narrative with misleading information about a detail of the event, a hammer was referred to as a screwdriver instead while the control group werent provided details of the specific event. Participants then had to answer a series of questions about the event. The critical question concerning the putz had the original stage as an option (hammer) and a new item (wrench). It was found that accuracy for the control group was seventy-five percent and lxxii percent for the mislead condition group. The fact that there was little fight between the two groups points to the idea that misleading post event information does not distort memory of an event. This experiment supports the validity of eyewitness testimony and due to the controlled setting the results are highly valid though it lacks ecological validity.Analysis of Factors that may affect Eye-witness Testimony during the Retrieval Process close to evidence from eyewitnesses are a result of their accounts of the event. This involves the retrieval process of information from their long term memory store. This section of the essay aims to analyse and evaluate research conducted in relation to the techniques of retrieving information from eyewitnesses such as question wording or method of questioning. This is to evaluate the extent of influence of such techniques on t he reliability of eyewitness accounts and in relation, memory.The method of questioning during the retrieval process plays an important role in the accuracy of eye-witness testimony as investigated by Lipton (1977, cited in Wells, 1978). Lipton conducted an experiment where participants watched a film of a take away in a courtroom setting. He found that unstructured testimony which allowed free recall resulted in ninety-one percent accuracy. This is a significant value as compared to other types of questioning such as open ended questions with eighty-three percent accuracy, leading questions with seventy-two percent accuracy and multiple choice questions with fifty-six percent accuracy. These results show that the type of questioning that the witness is subjected to affects the accuracy of their recount. When applied to trial testimonies, jurors should take into account the type of questioning to predict or get an idea of the level of accuracy of the testimony. Though conclusive to a certain extent, the experiment lacks ecological validity as the participants did not actually experience the event, merely perceive it but as it is a controlled environment, the reliability of the cause and effect factors is high.Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) carried out an experiment to investigate the effect of leading questions on the accuracy of participants in recalling a car crash. Fourty-five participants were separated into seven groups and each group watched a video of traffic accidents. The videos lasted from five to thirty seconds. After watching the video, participants had to give an account of what they had just seen. The independent variable is the question About how fast were the cars going when they hit each other?. The word hit is replaced with the voice communication smashed, contacted, bumped and collided for different groups. The participants answer as to the estimate of the cars speed is the dependant variable. Loftus and Palmer found that the mean estimate of speed for more aggressive words such as smashed is higher than less aggressive words such as contacted. The results are highly significant, pContending the results of this experiment is Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study of a real life event. 13 participants were interviewed using Loftus and Palmers (1974 cited in Hill, 1998) technique in their recall four to five months after witnessing an attempted looting in daylight where one individual was killed and another, seriously wounded. It was found that there was a very high level of similarity between the accounts given by the witnesses, the accounts did not substitute in response to leading questions and that the witnesses were able to recall the event in detail. Additionally, accounts of those who were more distressed had a higher accuracy level. These results are different to Loftus and Palmer (1974 cited in Hill, 1998). The eye witnesses did not alter their accounts greatly in response to leading questions. As this is a case study, it holds high ecological validity unlike laboratory experiments. Although this may be true, Yuille and Cutshalls case study was of an event that was relatively traumatic event and was viewed in ideal conditions. Most incidents do not mirror this setting. Also, it was an investigation of only one case study. Hence, the application of these findings is debatable when applied to general eye witness testimonies.ConclusionThis essay evaluated the extent of accuracy of the claim that eyewitness testimony should not be depended upon. This was done by focusing on the different factors that can affect human memory, and in relation, eyewitness testimony as it is fundamentally based on memory. Experiments and case studies related to factors in three different memory stages were identified and evaluated.Research concerning the acquisition process such as exposure time, estimation of factors concerning the event, for example, time, violence of the event, weapon focus and witness stress level during the event was analysed. Results point to a correlational statistics of high levels of inaccuracy when more traumatic factors are included in the event. This is also reflected in research concerning the retention process and the retrieval process although there is some evidence that supports the reliability of eyewitness testimony. Overall analysis criticised the low ecological validity of controlled experiments but also supported the high level of validity that comes with it as it essentially provides a cause and effect birth between specific variables tested. Case studies were found to be very specific with regards to certain factors, which leads to a debate about their general application. Since experiments are only replications of real-life events, it cant be fully taken as the actual process. This may have some influence on the results obtained as it can be argued that the participants are not really experiencing the event, thus essential factors l ike, atmosphere, or even interest in the event may be compromised. In this manner, results of case studies hold a higher level of reliability.As indicated by the numerous researches on different factors during the process of collecting, processing and retrieving information from memory, eye witness testimony is reliable only to a small extent. Under such fallibility, it can be questioned if eyewitness testimony should be relied on at all. Though eyewitness testimony has been proved accurate in a number of researches, the amount of investigations concluding on the fact that it is highly feeble far outweighs it. Though a large number of researches do not support the reliability of eyewitness testimony, there is also evidence to support it like Yuille and Cutshalls (1986) case study. This suggests that although eyewitness testimony can be unreliable, under certain conditions, it is highly accurate.Implications for application of the analysis in this essay could include jurors being mo re wary of eyewitness testimony and the conditions relating to it when deciding upon a verdict. Further research could include more case studies to increase the ecological validity of the theories produced by experiments analysed in this essay.ReferencesAtkinson, R. C. Shriffin, R. M. (1971), The Control Processes of Short-term Memory, Stanford, California, Stanford UniversityEasterbrook J. A. (1959), The Effect of sensation on Cue Utilisation and the Organisation of Behaviour, Psychological Review, Vol 66(3), 183-201Green, C. D, (n.d.) Classics in the tale of Psychology Yerkes and Dodson (1908), Toronto, Ontario, York University, Retrieved from psychclassics.yorka.ca http//psychclassics.yorku.ca/Yerkes/ faithfulness/Hill, G. (1998), Oxford Revision Guides, AS A Level Psychology, immature York, Oxford University instancyLoftus, E. F Loftus, G. R Messo, J. (1987), Some facts about Weapon Focus, Law and Human Behaviour, Vol 11(1), 55-62Loftus, E. F. (1975), Leading Questions and the Eyewitness Repost, Cognitive Psychology, Vol 7, 550-572, University of WashingtonLoftus E. F. (1979), Eyewitness Testimony, Cambridge, Massachusetts, London, England, USA, Harvard University PressYullie J. C. Cutshall J. L. (1986), A case study of eyewitness memory of a crime, ledger of apply Psychology, script 71(2), May 1986, 291-301Weiten, W. (2005), Psychology Themes and Variations, The United States of America, Thomson Learning Inc.Wells, G. L. (1978), Applied Eyewitness-Testimony Research System Variables and Estimator Variables, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. Volume 36, No. 12, 1547-1557, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Canada

Challenges for Advertising Agencies by New Delivery Systems

Ch all(prenominal)enges for de n unmatched Agencies by impudentfangled Deli truly SystemsMaphosaMok atomic number 53Title of try or assignment WHAT HAS BEEN THE CHALLENGE POSED FOR ADVERTISING AGENCIES BY rude(a) MEDIA AND DELIVERY SYSTEMS?This essay ordain set-backly give a apprize every coiffe fit of the beginning of advertisement agencies followed by a brief breakline of the crease polish mutilateice of these advertizement agencies. This w sick(p) be followed by a discussion of somewhat saucily media and its functions. The challenges that spic-and-span-fangled media and spoken colloquy systems acquire pose for publicize agencies will be discussed and finally a conclusion.Overview of the beginning of publicizing agencies will be discussed followed by a brief outline of the purpose of publicizing agencies. announce agencies kickoff became prominent in the late 1800s with a rising invite for advertizing serve from magazines and unfermentedspapers (Ref erence). The first k instantaneously and ack directledged advertizement spot was William Taylor from as early as 1786 followed by an a nonher(prenominal) prominent one in 1800 which was st inventioned by James Jem White at Fleet course in London. Agencies started in the States in 1850 which come out of the closetd client produced advertisements in saucyspapers (Reference). Agencies started operating on a domain of a function(prenominal) outstrip during the early 20th century. One of the occurrently well-known publicizing agencies that started in the 1850s is James Walter Thompson (JWT) (Reference). JWT first joined Carlton and Smith Agency eventually purchasing the publicize unwaveringly in 1877 and renamed it JWT. Inorder to be to make the agency self-made, JWT hired artists and writers forming the first known notional Department in some(prenominal) advertize agency. JWT was alike the first agency to develop and leave a global footprint (Reference). Since whence, some(prenominal) other(a) agencies submit been created. Whilst some exhaust survived through adapting to current global technological departs, some experience f darkeneded as a result of dep permiting advertizement budgets. This will be discussed only within the essay.Christian, (2014) asserts that advertising agencies usually control independently from their clients and sometimes handle general marketing and makeing strategies and gross revenue promotions for its clients. melodyes devour for many a nonher(prenominal) years been reliant on advertising agencies which enjoyment advertising platforms such as television, tick off- in the buffspapers, radio and magazines. advertizement agencies be services centred on advertising melodic phrasees. According to Hackley, (2010), advertising agencies create, plan and handle advertising for its customers. advertisement agencies may sometimes allow in marketing and under agree other promotional melt for its clients (Ha ckley, 2010) and push aside sometimes also handle overall marketing and branding strategies and sales promotions for customers depending on the customers fates (Hackley, 2010). In the beginning, advertising agencies did not create advertisements but simply brokered advertising space in magazines and raw(a)spapers. Advertising agencies suck overtime added fanciful services to increase revenue. Their primary(prenominal) role is to work with clients to develop advertising campaigns. They atomic number 18 facultyed by copywriters, art directors, and media planners who create and place advertisements in what they deem as appropriate media for bespeak earshots. Advertising agencies work within a companys advertising budget.What is b atomic number 18-assed Media and its functionsAdvertising is becoming increasingly refined due to the introduction of new media. Chun and Keenan, (2006. Eds) evoke to saucy media as products and services that provide information victimization ve rsatile forms of electronic converse accessible the affair of computer technology it slackly describes study that lavatory is available on-demand through the Internet. New media enables masses to view any content on various devices such as computers, laptops, tablets etcetera. This provides wad with a contract to immediately interact with the content and also enables people to sh atomic number 18 a lot of content online within a curt space of time this can be kind net altogether kit and boodle or work related content with co-workers.Heath and Bryant, (2000) state that the introduction of new media has posed challenges to traditional advertising agencies due to the growth of the Internet and nomadic technologies. Lewis, (2010) concurs by suggesting that the introduction of new media has had significant implications for advertising industry as new media has become the privilegered platform of advertising thereby usurping business from advertising agencies. Dewdney and Rid e, (2006) state that one of the key features of new and emerging media technologies which are now being employ to advertise are often portable and have the capability to stretchiness a wider audience within a very short space of time. New media advertising is mainly cost legal as to the highest degree of the advertising platforms are free this is not the chemise with old media which has ever so been used by advertising agencies (Lindgren cited in Galloway, 2005).New media advertising has the ability to promote visual marketing which is appealing to the consumer as compared to old media advertising which largely in print form and also enables content delivery on demand by consumers depending on the propose audience (Las Vegas Review daybook, 2016). New media enables clients to develop blogs or web pageboys that provide up-to-date information on their products or services within seconds whereas advertising media have to plan in advance and schedule release of information si de by side(p) availability and purchase of advertising space. Within new media delivery systems, customers can subscribe to intelligence information feeds by receiving alerts to sales or company events straight to their electronic gadgets (reference). Companies with an online presence can also advertise their business on other popular websites to direct unique visitors to their companys webpage or use influencers to fellate business towards their products. Whilst advertising agencies can also use influencers, it takes longsighteder for advertisements to be seen on print media.In addition, new media has the ability and capacity to facilitate psyche-to-person communication through the availability of multimedia messaging through MMS, textual matter messaging, SMS, emailing, SMS, online chatting and instant messaging, online forums and blogging within a short space of time whereas old media used by advertising agencies is usually more of story -telling and seldom delivers specifi c calls to action (Streten, 2013). Advertising agencies use a one way form of communication whereas new media passs a two way communication with channelize audiences hence businesses now rely more on new media as it is easy to reach future new clients (Hausman, 2012) (Owen, 1999). This poses a huge challenge to advertising agencies as the amount of time taken to reach the same number of prospective clients will be much more. New media has brought around change to service provision in areas as diverse as dating, delivery of higher education courses and how people do their banking and the reinforcement is that this can be set for specific target audiences and thereof most companies will prefer this type of advertising as the target audience will be reached faster in comparison to traditional advertising for example, when advertising adult content on television, this can only be advertised after watershed times and by then, some of the target audiences will not be envisioning or might exclude the adverts (Bennet, 2003).Advertising agencies have been known to work as a necktie betwixt smaller businesses which cannot often afford personal marketing teams and thusly companies, especially smaller ones turn to new advertising platforms as these are usually free (Inc.com, 2016). Advertising agencies have for many years cogitate predominantly on traditional media advertising, alongside television media (Brooks, 2012). However, new media has dramatically changed the role that print advertising p arranges in an agencys overall strategy and whence advertising agencies have to now determine the new role for print, if any leading to the agencys further predicament. New media enables advertisers to define the increased revenue to clients which is a challenge to advertising agencies as their revenues cannot be accurately quantifiable (Hausman, 2012). New media, for example, Instagram, has the provision for advertisers with business insights, to understand their followers and clients engagement with the advertising campaigns (Instagram Business Tools, 2016) whereas advertising agencies do not have this provision especially if advertising on print media. Advertising agencies will need to master brand advertising and marketing and so as to be able to quantify the increased revenue to clients. In addition, agencies will need to work to focus more on the customer than its client inorder to somehow match new media delivery systems. This is likely to be costly for the agency as they need to train staff and change the rest of their planned advertisements (Reference)The challenges that new media and delivery systems have posed for advertising agenciesNew media has dramatically changed how advertising works and are continuously presenting several challenges for advertising agencies. Some of the hurdles en restorationed by advertising agencies include using new media and delivery systems media to deliver pecuniary outcomes for clients, and they eff icaciously integrate new media delivery systems such as Facebook, Instagram and cheep into inclusive campaigns and use these to convince clients that experts in social media can effectively deliver better results than doing so in person. Willott, (2011) suggest that changes in both(prenominal) technological and consumer behaviour have led to significant implications for the advertising industry. He argues that new media has disposed(p) turn up to the need to revisit advertising strategies and to the schooling of new ship canal of customer engagement for marketers during the communication process. Deuze, (2005) states that whilst engaging customers in advertising activities, new media has forced agencies to re mobilize new originative possibilities thence creating challenges for adverting agencies as they have been used to a certain way of advertising which has always suited their business without taking the consumer into much consideration (2007). Therefore, it in this sense that new media has created both opportunities and challenges to advertising agencies and practitioners as they need to rise to the challenge of new media delivery systems by works in a way that will surpass or match or new media advertising.Falls (2009) suggests that advertising agencies are attempt to figure out social media and if they want to continue to offer various marketing services to clients, then it is important to germinate and embrace some tenets of new media and adjust advertising strategies. He indicates that some agencies are adjusting by hiring smart new media thinkers still there are still many that still operate in the same way they did before the introduction of media which has taken over the world of adverting. Falls, (2010) further states that many ad agencies have not yet judge out Interactive advertising for example, Web 1.0 followed by Web 2.0 and many agencies and their respective creatives (art directors, copywriters, designers) and clients services tea ms are still not trained to think digitally. He argues that the problem is that there is a culture clash between advertising agencies and new media advertising and the issues can be said to both philosophical and tactical. (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). Philosophically, Falls, (2010) suggest that advertising agencies use a one-way communication system aimed at large groups of customers as compared to new media delivery systems which offer a two-way communication system this requires listening and speaking. He further argues that new media can be deemed a multiple-way communication system as brands can speak and listen to customers and also observe or watch whilst other customers communicate with each other. Agencies creatives and strategic planners have to try and include similar communication systems however this will take a long time to achieve and can be costly as they have to either engage staff that are familiar with new media or train their existing staff on how new media works which may not be cost effective (Kaplan and Haenlein, 2010). It can be argued that new media delivery systems are customer focussed as it offers value for money to customers whereas advertising agencies are more business focussed and do not offer to build a relationship with the customer (Coghlan, W. 2007). Therefore, philosophically, it can be argued that agency creative staff are being asked to all of a sudden master and undertake new methods of advertising and communicating which is in contrast to everything they have learnt in their careers. This has a direct impact on agencies as it directly impacts staff morale and can be counter effective. Looking at the issues from a tactical view, Falls, (2010) states that advertising creatives have always primarily focussed on traditional media and therefore are not wed savvy. For most of the employees, during the traditional advertising era, there were technological or electronic designing classes. Advertising was more art focussed which way of life the agency directors and designers were and still are more art focussed than technological. tralatitious advertising is more linked to storytelling whereas web savvy specialists emanate from a technological era hence are experienced at synergistic or digital communication and work production. Falls, (2010) further states within advertising agencies, creative teams usually brainstorm to create their advertisements and are usually not part of the creative process and told what to input in their creative pieces by someone who makes the decision whereas those from the new media era are part of the creative process and therefore become part of the decision making process. (Reference). In addition, new media revolves around content creation, however, advertising agencies are incapable and ill prepared to create and produce the volume and type of content demand for delivery systems such as Facebook, blogs, YouTube, Instagram and twitter, to name a few. New media on the othe r hand produces immediate quick conversational and responsive content whereas advertising agencies have to proof read several times and given the go ahead to publish.Advertising agencies buy advertising space and place advertisements for their clients and this is for a certain period of time however in new media, any posts last as long as the user likes and therefore are available to be viewed by more people generating affirmable new business organisation (Reference). This has resulted in advertising agencies realising massive plummeting revenue figures. collect to advertising revenue take uping due to plummeting readership and circulation, agencies have been forced to let some of its staff go which has endangered the quality of the newspapers and worsened the side for advertising agencies (Currah, 2009a). Staff turnover has had a huge impact on advertising agencies due to loss of jobs due to most work which was manually done in old media being done technologically/electronical ly. Gregory, (2012)s enquiry into how new media was impacting on advertising agencies indicates in the recent global turning point in addition to new media appears to have left a massive impact on advertising agencies and their employees. Gregory, (2012) states several agencies had to downsize or lay off most of their employees while other employees moved to different industries because they were unsure about their jobs. Learmont, (2008), reports that according to a web based advertising agency media compend of US Department of Labour employment statistics and news reports, advertising agencies in the United States shed more than 30,000 jobs in 2008 inorder to remain viable. However, in sloughing these jobs, the agencies are likely to encounter further challenges as the laid off staff have the knowledge of how advertising works and therefore can get together and start their own competitive agencies that utilise new media and therefore pose more challenges as their customers will follow them in top their new businesses as they will already have a working assistantship.These changes resulted in high turnover at other competing corporations therefore, this faded client ties to advertising agencies as most employees that individual clients had developed working relationships with had left the advertising agencies and therefore took their businesses elsewhere. Clients were unsure if these advertising agencies would continue handicraft which could negatively impact their businesses if the agencies went out of business (Gregory, 2012). Advertising agencies need to have consistent and trusting relationships with their afloat otherwise a non-consistent relationship makes it easier for clients to take their business elsewhere. Inorder to overcome McCabe, (2012 in Gregory, 2012) states that .. its difficult to maintain consistent creative approaches and media buying strategies when writers, art directors and media buyers dont remain agency employees beyond one air of an advertising campaign, This mainly results from low staff turnover following agencies retrenching staff go due to low clientele leading to agencies losing their income base. Most business that was traditionally handled by advertising agencies has now mostly been taken over by new media advertising. Business owners appear to prefer this type of advertising as they argue that whilst there are certain challenges in using new media for business advertisements, these are outweighed by the opportunities in terms of cost, longevity of displayed advertisements, reaching target audience on a wide scale (e-marketer, 2016) for example, advertising on Facebook also advertises on Instagram meaning you place one advert on one delivery system and it appears on other delivery systems using Instagrams hashtag system.Due to the hours people spend on their mobile phones, emails and browsing social networks, a little time is now spent reading newspapers and magazines and usually by the older ge neration who still prefer traditional media advertising, advertising agencies that have remained afloat have had to completely change the way. Most customers would like to skip commercial and therefore prefer to use new media delivery systems which enables them to skip commercials and view whatever interests them. Epstein, (2015) states that advertising agencies and brand advertisers are still focussing on the short slots they that traditional media has used since the inception of traditional advertising because this is what they have always known and been dear(p) at. However, due to their reluctance to adapt to the changes brought by new media, the agencies are helplessness to reach their target audiences as the audiences have now been swept forth by the new media and service delivery systems (Choi, (2011). Therefore, it can be argued that condescension these changes and challenges being encountered by agencies, they are still inept to adapt to the changes that are ruining agen cy efficacy. Advertising agencies have become rigid to the ways to they practice such that they have been increasingly slow to adapt to the new media ways of practice (Haughteling, 2015) This could be a result of the way advertisements have been formulated in the past and because they have over the years successfully operated in this way, agencies do not see the need to adapt and evolve to the advertising trends brought about by new media and delivery systems. Haughteling, (2015) suggests that the big successful advertising agencies such as Omnicom, IPG1, Saatchi and Saatchi and WPP to name a few, have adapt and focussed more upon its digital functions and in so doing, shuffled their teams to suit current trends and laid off excess staff and hired already suitable personnel who are adept in using new media. However, with all the changes the agencies have undergone, these have not altered the fundamental threats faced by advertising agencies in this era of rapid technological chang e resulting from the chastity of new media (Beeching and Wood, 2007). If agencies are ill-equipped to handle the demands of digital media, new partners who are ready to rise upto the challenge will continue to usurp business from the agencies and additional challenges will be realised by agencies and affect their efforts of trying to remain afloat and in competition. In addition, brands can directly partner digital influencers who have hordes of new media followers and play an important role in matching brands, manufacturers and clients as they help to coordinate broader campaigns (Benkler, 2006).Whilst advertising agencies place advertisements that aims to reach a wider group of customers, new media involves individually tailored person to person marketing (Hausman, 2012). New media uses targeting tools which enables advertisers to pay only for advertisements that they feel prospective clients who might be interested in the advertised products (Allen, 2015). Magazine advertising c ampaigns are commonly produced beforehand and are usually scheduled for months which does not satisfy the consumers need for new content on a perpetual basis (Hausman, 2012). New media on the other hand produces and immediately issues out unbendable new content on a regular basis. In addition, OGuinn et al., (2012) state that advertising agencies have periodical subscription fees as compared to new media which is mostly free or cheaper which results in new media having the urge over advertisements place by advertising agencies. Therefore, this poses several challenges for advertising agencies as they lose regular and prospective clientele to new media platforms which offers them much more for less payments. In addition to the above, advertising agencies do not completely.Conclusion In conclusion, it is manifest that the rise of new media has posed challenges for advertising agencies in that major changes have been realised within the advertising industry as a whole and to the ro le of advertising agencies in particular. Coghlan, W. (2007) states that advertising agencies work as a link between clients and consumers however the speed with which new media delivery systems avails new content on various platforms cannot be matched by platforms used by advertising agencies. New media continues to lead in the advertising setting and look for shows that it still has a capability to gain further momentum with the adjoining few years as more and more delivery systems are being introduced which appear to be favoured by both the customers and clients (Reference). New media advertising has opened a whole new wide world of opportunities for clients as more and more customers are engaging well with new media. digital media use is global and is increasingly overtaking agencies time spent notice TV and reading newspapers in on the scorn. Internet use now accounts for double the time spent using traditional media (Meeker 2015). New media is acquire stronger for example , Instagram, one of the new media delivery systems is expected to reach at least(prenominal) $3.8 billion business by 2020 (DOnfro, 2016). In contrast, advertising agencies are having to lay off staff due to a decline in clientele and moreso their advertising budget is increasingly decreasing due to a decline in their profit margins.ReferencesAndreasen, A.R. (2002). Marketing companionable Marketing in the favorable Change Marketplace. ledger of Public Policy Marketing.Vol. 21 (I) pp. 3-13Deuze, M. (2010). Managing Media Work. Business Economics. wise Publications. LondonFox, S. 1985. 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